What is the Catholic Liturgical Year?
Also called the Church year or the Christian calendar, the Catholic liturgical calendar is the cycle of seasons in the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. The Church year begins each year with Advent, the season of awaiting Christ’s coming, and ends with the final Saturday of Ordinary time. Within the standard calendar year, the Church year starts in early December (or sometimes the end of November) and goes through the following November.
The Church year consists of six liturgical seasons: Advent, Christmas, Ordinary Time after Epiphany, Lent, Easter, and Ordinary Time after Pentecost. Seasons begin or end based on a movable feast and so some seasons vary in length from year to year, and vary as to the calendar dates. The following is a brief overview of the Catholic liturgical seasons: their durations, their purpose and focus, and the liturgical year colors.
Advent: First Sunday of Advent through December 24th
Advent begins the Sunday closest to the feast of St. Andrew, which is November 30th. Therefore Advent always falls sometime between November 28th and December 3rd, and lasts until the Nativity of the Lord. The season always has somewhere between 21 and 28 days.
The Advent season is the time of waiting and preparing for the coming of Jesus. This refers both to the anniversary celebration of the Incarnation, as well as the second and final coming for which we are waiting and preparing.
The liturgical colors of Advent are Purple and Rose, with Rose being used only on the third Sunday of Advent.
Christmas: December 25th through The Feast of the Baptism of the Lord
The Christmas season begins with the celebration of the birth of Jesus, Christmas day, or as a vigil on Christmas Eve. The Feast of Christmas lasts 12 days, until Epiphany. However, the time from Epiphany until the Baptism of the Lord is also included in the Christmas season. Traditionally, Epiphany had been fixed to January 6th, and the Baptism celebrated on the octave of Epiphany, which was January 13th. In most countries, the Epiphany is now celebrated on the Sunday closest to January 6th, and the Baptism celebrated the following Sunday. The Christmas season is a time of rejoicing in the Incarnation.
The liturgical color of Christmas is white.
Ordinary Time after the Baptism: Monday after the Feast of the Baptism through Shrove Tuesday
After the celebration of the Feast of the Baptism of the Lord, Ordinary Time begins. Ordinary does not mean plain. The name comes from “ordinalis” meaning "showing order, denoting an order of succession.” It is used in this sense to refer to the order of the counted weeks. That is to say, it is a season of counted weeks.
Ordinary Time after the Baptism focuses on the early life and childhood of Christ, and then on His public ministry.
The liturgical color of Ordinary Time is green; however, as in all seasons, other appropriate colors are worn on particular feast days. (For example, blue is typically worn for Marian feast days.)
Lent: Ash Wednesday through Holy Saturday
The season of Lent begins with Ash Wednesday and lasts until the final Saturday before Easter, Holy Saturday. Lent is a penitential season. It recalls the 40 days Jesus spent in the desert, and the 40 years the Israelites wandered in the desert. Lent focuses on the events leading up to Christ’s passion, and finally on the Passion itself.
Lent is 40 days long. This does not include Sundays, as Sunday is always a day for rejoicing in the Resurrection. Altogether, it covers 46 calendar days, the 40 days plus the six Sundays.
The liturgical colors of Lent are violet or purple, traditionally more of a red-violet color than the deep purple of Advent. Rose may also be used, where it is the custom, on Laetare Sunday (Fourth Sunday during Lent). On Passion Sunday (Palm Sunday) and on Good Friday (which has no Mass but a service remembering Christ’s passion) the color is red. White or violet is worn on Holy Thursday and Holy Saturday (once again, there is no Mass but there are other services on Holy Saturday).
Easter: Easter Vigil though Pentecost
The Easter season begins with the Easter Vigil, which is celebrated after night falls on the evening before Easter Sunday. The season of Easter is a joyous, celebratory season. It begins with celebrating Christ’s resurrection and ends by celebrating the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the Apostles and other followers of Jesus. Christ’s ascension into Heaven is celebrated just prior to Pentecost. The Easter season last 50 days, from Easter Sunday through Pentecost.
The liturgical colors of Easter are white, for most days, and red for Pentecost.
Ordinary Time after Pentecost: The day after Pentecost through the final day before Advent
(See the above section on Ordinary Time for the history of the term)
The second period of Ordinary Time is the longest liturgical season. Ordinary Time resumes after Pentecost and runs until the final Saturday before Advent. This period of Ordinary Time focuses on Christ’s reign as King of kings, and on the age of the Church. This is the age we live in now, which is the time between the age of the Apostles and the age of Christ’s second and final coming for which we are ever preparing. The final Sunday in Ordinary Time is the Feast of Christ the King; the Saturday after this feast is the final day of Ordinary time.
Again, the liturgical color of Ordinary Time is green; however, as in all seasons, other appropriate colors are worn on particular feast days.
Summary Table of Liturgical Dates
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2010
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2011
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2012
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2013
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2014
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2015
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2010
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2011
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2012
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2013
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2014
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2015
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Lectionary (Sunday/Weekday)
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C/II
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A/I
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B/II
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C/1
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A/II
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B/I
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First Sunday of Advent
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29 November 2009
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28 November 2010
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27 November 2011
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2 December 2012
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1 December 2013
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30 November 2014
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Birth of the Lord
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25 December
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25 December
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25 December
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25 December
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25 December
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25 December
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Epiphany
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3 January
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2 January
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8 January
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6 January
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5 January
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4 January
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Ash Wednesday
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17 February
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9 March
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22 February
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13 February
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5 March
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18 February
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Easter Sunday
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4 April
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24 April
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8 April
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31 March
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20 April
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5 April
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Ascension
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16 May
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5 June
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20 May
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12 May
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1 June
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17 May
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Pentecost
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23 May
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12 June
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27 May
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19 May
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8 June
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24 May
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The Body and Blood of Christ
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6 June
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26 June
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10 June
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2 June
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22 June
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7 June
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St Peter & St Paul
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29 June
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29 June
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29 June
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30 June
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29 June
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28 June
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Assumption
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15 August
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14 August
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15 August
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15 August
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15 August
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16 August
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All Saints
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31 October
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1 November
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1 November
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1 November
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2 November
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1 November
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First Sunday of Advent
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28 November
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27 November
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2 December
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1 December
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30 November
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29 November
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What is the meaning of the liturgical colors in the Catholic church?
In the Roman Rite, since Pius V, colours are five in number, viz.: white, red, green, violet, and black. Rose colour is employed only on Lætare and Gaudete Sundays. Blue is prescribed in some dioceses of Spain for the Mass of the Immaculate Conception.
White is the colour proper to Trinity Sunday, the feasts of Our Lord, except those of His Passion, the feasts of the Blessed Virgin, angels, confessors, virgins and women, who are not martyrs, the Nativity of St. John the Baptist, the chief feast of St. John the Evangelist, the feast of the Chains and of the Chair of St. Peter, the Conversion of St. Paul, All Saints, to consecration of churches and altars, the anniversaries of the election and coronation of the pope and of the election and consecration of bishops; also for the octaves of these feasts and the Offices de tempore from Holy Saturday to the vigil of Pentecost; it is used for votive Masses when the feasts have white, and for the nuptial Mass; also in services in connection with the Blessed Sacrament, at the burial of children, in the administration of baptism, Holy Viaticum, and matrimony.
Red(the color of the Holy Spirit) is used the week of Pentecost, on the feasts of Christ's Passion and His Precious Blood, the Finding and Elevation of the Cross, the feasts of Apostles and martyrs; and in votive Masses of these feasts. It is used on Holy Innocents if the feast occur on Sunday and always on its octave.
Green(a color of hope) is employed in Offices de tempore from the octave of the Epiphany to Septuagesima, and from the octave of Pentecost to Advent, except on ember-days and vigils during that time, and on Sundays occurring within an octave.
White is the colour proper to Trinity Sunday, the feasts of Our Lord, except those of His Passion, the feasts of the Blessed Virgin, angels, confessors, virgins and women, who are not martyrs, the Nativity of St. John the Baptist, the chief feast of St. John the Evangelist, the feast of the Chains and of the Chair of St. Peter, the Conversion of St. Paul, All Saints, to consecration of churches and altars, the anniversaries of the election and coronation of the pope and of the election and consecration of bishops; also for the octaves of these feasts and the Offices de tempore from Holy Saturday to the vigil of Pentecost; it is used for votive Masses when the feasts have white, and for the nuptial Mass; also in services in connection with the Blessed Sacrament, at the burial of children, in the administration of baptism, Holy Viaticum, and matrimony.
Red(the color of the Holy Spirit) is used the week of Pentecost, on the feasts of Christ's Passion and His Precious Blood, the Finding and Elevation of the Cross, the feasts of Apostles and martyrs; and in votive Masses of these feasts. It is used on Holy Innocents if the feast occur on Sunday and always on its octave.
Green(a color of hope) is employed in Offices de tempore from the octave of the Epiphany to Septuagesima, and from the octave of Pentecost to Advent, except on ember-days and vigils during that time, and on Sundays occurring within an octave.
Black is used in offices for the dead, and on Good Friday.
HUWEBES, NOBYEMBRE 15, 2012
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF MORAL THEOLOGY
Historical Perspective of Moral Theology.
Man, with his free will and intellect, leads a dynamic life. He has grown and developed from the primitive ways of life into a more sophisticated one, brought about by the development in science and technology. His moral life is affected by growth in knowledge and technology and the changes brought about by them.
The Bible is one of the living testimonies affirming man's development in morality. The following is a brief description of the different stages of development of moral theology as it progresses in time:
1. The law of the Jungle.
The book of Genesis gives us a very symbolic presentation of man's primal stages of development. Adam and Eve representing the first men had lived a primitive life, like at first, not wearing anything and then later on realized the use of what is available in the environment.
The story of Cain and Abel also tells us the supremacy of physical and brutal force, which is the law of the jungle. In Tagalog, we call this kind of morality as "matira ang matibay" – survival of the fittest which is true among our Filipino tribal groups and barangays, even before the coming of the Spaniards who introduced Christianity as a religion, and up to the present time. Although there were already sets of codes followed by our ancestors like the Code of Kalantiao, the law known as "an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth" still pervades. Hence, the physically strong member of the community lives and survives.
The use of force and violence in man's dealing with others is the striking feature of this law.
2. The Moral Law of the Old Testament.
The Old Testament part of the Bible, gives us accounts on the beginning of what is called the "covenant morality", based on the covenant relationship between God and His chosen people. The covenant relationship was further deepened and strengthened by the giving of the Decalogue, popularly known to us Christians as the Ten Commandments.
Today, our understanding of the history and our relationship with God helps us to understand the idea of this law, which is associated with our duty to God and to our fellowmen, and in the light of relationship – our covenant with God. This is the e covenant where God unites himself in love to his people.
The main idea and value of this covenant is in its stability and its steadfastness. Moses saw this himself, and preserved this covenant. He gave the chosen people the Ten Commandments, which have been valued greatly by his people.
There are two dimensions of attachments, namely: between theChosen people and God and among the people themselves. It comes in two tablets of stones. The first, containing the first three which requires for an undivided religious allegiance to just one God. The second, containing the other seven, requiring social unity – respect for family, sacredness of oath, conjugal fidelity, security of life and property.
3. The Moral Law of the New Testament.
The two tablets of the Ten Commandments are taken up in the New Testament by Jesus' twofold law of love, i.e., to love God and to love one's neighbor as oneself. This is presented in the different gospels as a summation of the law; however, it seems to give more emphasis on the love of neighbor. Although in the epistle of John, the love of God cannot be separated from the love of man.
"If you say, "I love God," while you hate your brother or sister, you are a liar. How can you love God whom you do not see, if you do not love your brother whom you see? We received from him this commandment: let those who love God also love their brothers." (1Jn. 4: 20)
Those people who do all or participate in all our religious practices and who say they love God, but cheat, abuse others, hate their neighbors, unforgiving to others, etc. are liars.
This moral teaching of Jesus has reference in the different gospels in different situations. This is represented in Matthew (5: 1-7: 12 – Sermon on the Mount or Beatitudes) and in the gospel according to Luke (6:20-24 – On Treasures).
The moral message of Jesus is centered on the proclamation of God's kingdom, which requires man to repent. He was not making specific moral demands but gave importance on calling everyone to have faith in God, observe the Law but not equate it with moral probity, to love one another.
Jesus was concerned with the world but rejected to be a political figure. His concern was to affect the consciousness and behavior of the leaders.
He also had a special regard for the poor. That poverty is not an obstacle for the attainment of theKingdom of God
One striking topic in the Gospel according to Luke is Jesus' concern for the dignity of women, which is in contrast with the Jewish attitudes and customs. Jesus' teachings on marriage and the family suggest a strong insistence on permanence.
Jesus also criticized those who acted only for the sake of rewards.
4. The Moral Teachings of theEarly Church
Christian existence is an existence in a community. The law is summed up in the call to love one another.
Many of the Fathers of the Church contributed something in the development of Christian morality.
Clement ofAlexandria
Origen (Clement's successor in ca. 254) focused on the imitation of God in a more contemplative as well as the active life and reflected on free will is in virtues and the restoration of all things in God.
Ambrose (ca 397) provided the first case-approach to moral theology and insisted on the superiority of the Christian moral ideal over pagan philosophies.
Cyril of Jerusalem believes that Christian existence in sacramental existence.
Augustine (Ambrose's disciple) one of the most significant figure in the development of Christian Moral Theology, attended and discuss the fundamental problems of Christian morality like the relationship of grace and freedom, faith and work, faith and love, original sin and restoration of grace, grace and the law, natural law and revealed law, and divine love and the natural appetites. He believes that Christian morality is the way and means to eternal union with God. Hence, morality requires obedience to the law of love.
5. Moral Theology from the 7th to 12th century.
From the emphasis that Christian existence is corporate existence, Christianity became more legalized.
A remarkable change in moral theology is the appearance of the penitential books (Libri Poenitentialies) used to assist the generally uneducated clergy to be able to determine appropriate penance for a broad variety of sins. Further, this is due to influences of the Celtic monks who made the sacrament of penance as an individual sacrament.
6. Moral Theology from the 13th to the mid 20th century.
In the 13th century, systematization was the rule rather than the exception. The two great figures are Bonaventure and Thomas Aquinas.
For Bonaventure, the intellect is just a tool of the will, which is the instrument in making decisions.
Thomas Aquinas emphasized the intellectual side of human existence. His moral teaching is framed on the doctrines of creation and redemption. That a Christian concerns is to act as God's own image and likeness and on the humility of Christ as our way to God.
In the 14th and 15th centuries, individualistic ethics and ethical legalism were introduced by the nominalists like William of Ockham. They emphasized good individual acts is that which conforms to the will of the individual.
Feudalism was practiced during these centuries. Thus, there was a need to emphasize justice. Martin Luther, a prominent figure during this time, was convinced that no one is just and that the situation is focused on minimum. But Luther felt driven to perfection and that the situation cherishes good works. Luther placed his trust in faith alone.
The moral theology books were born in the 16th century to aid in the solution to moral problems and also to prepare priests for the sacramental ministry, especially the ministry of penance.
The Jansenists in the 17th century insisted that the strictest standards should be followed (a rigorist path). At the far left, the laxists favored deciding morality on a case-to-case basis that is favoring the easier course.
In the 19th to 20th centuries, Moral Theology was reconnected with the Bible giving emphasis on the themes of conversion, discipleship and the commandment of love. Noted theologians like Joseph Mausback, Otto Schilling, Frits Tulman and Theodore Steinbuechel presented a more integrated one – that the law of love, the ethics of the sermon is the heart and soul of moral theology. This theology was further disseminated by Joseph Fuchs, Bernard Haring and later by Charles Cunnan (Haring's American student).
7. Characteristics of Moral Theology beforeVatican II.
a. Tendency to be monolistic or unilateral or one-track minded, more concern on the do's and don'ts.
b. Primary concern: Natural Law.
To be moral one should follow the natural law or law of nature.
c. Method: based on Natural Law.
Content: reason is the sole judge of human actions.
d. 1st law: to reason or be reasonable.
2nd law: man's primary concern is to build a community - to procreate and thus sexual faculties are ordained to procreate.
e. Characteristics: excessive emphasis on the manuals, textbooks that explains moral teachings primarily with a view on the sacrament of penance.
f. Deficiency: too legalistic – everything should be based on what the law says, and lacks spirituality.
g. Influenced greatly by a Church, which is highly institutionalized, and was strongly reacting to Reformation.
8. Moral Theology according to the spirit of Vatican II.
The Second Vatican Council in 1961-65 called for a renewal of moral theology stressing the need to go back into the teachings of the scriptures; the nobility of the Christian vocation of the faithful; the need to emphasize with the mystery of Christ and the history of salvation (a Christo-centric moral theology). It clearly states that "other theological disciples should also be renewed by livelier contact with the mystery of Christ and the morality of salvation". Special attention should be given to the development of moral theology. Its scientific exposition should be more thoroughly nourished by spiritual teaching. It should show the nobility of the Christian vocation of the faithful and their obligation to bear fruit in charity for the life of the world. Moral theology according to Vatican II should have the following characteristics:
a. The relational context between God and Man should be emphasized.
Contemporary Moral Theology should be both man and God centered. It is both theo-centric as well as anthropocentric, in the sense that God's call for man to love is inseparably relative to man's response to such call. The dialogical pattern to God's free invitation in character (on the part of God), and in Christ that God invites the sinful man to turn away from sin, and go back to God.
b. Contemporary Moral Theology should be Christo-centric.
A Christo-centric Moral Theology should primarily be concern with the person of Jesus and secondarily on the earthly and sinful man. The two emphases should be together, since they are related to one another. It is necessary to emphasize the sinful down-to-earth man. A humanity which does not belong to our sinful lot would not need a savior, would not need the person of Jesus. And any theology, which would fail to give importance to the saving mission of Christ, would not be genuinely, Christo-centric. It is only through Christ, that humanity continues to be fascinated by Jesus and has something to learn from Him. But now, He is at least, on the human level, He is flesh of our flesh. With the incarnation, the problem of inequality between God and man has been resolved. We have a bridge: a loving relationship or a dialogue of love between God and man, which becomes possible in Christ Jesus.
c. Contemporary Moral Theology must be Ecclesial and Communitarian.
The Holy Spirit who proceeds from the Father and the Son dwells within the church as his temple. The Contemporary Moral Theology's emphasis on the ecclesial aspect is the sequel of the Christo-centric emphases. The focus on the ecclesial aspect makes all the more necessary to take into consideration the Communitarian dimension of Christian life and morality. It should go beyond the individualistic morality of isolated acts and concern for individual perfection to a vision of building up the human community to which the church is called to be the leaven. The place of the Church's magisterium in guiding moral reflection must be understood in this context.
d. Contemporary Moral Theology must be Scriptural.
Man gains insight into God's plan for him through his human reason, which discovers certain laws in nature. Man can perceive them in the things God has made. God's revelation is more definite in the sacred Scripture or in the Bible. Human reason aided by faith in divine revelation enables man to understand better what God has called him to do in his life. The scripture is the primary source of divine revelation. The word of God in the bible is authoritative in matters of faith and morals. However we must be always be careful to discern whether a particular spiritual situation is an essential moral teaching, normative for all times, or relevant only to the particular situation or to a certain stage of salvation history. When the Vatican II speaks that Moral Theology should be "more thoroughly nourished by scriptural teachings" it meant that fundamental orientation and conception of morality should be derived from scripture.
e. Contemporary Moral Theology is Sacramental and Liturgical.
It should also be liturgical since all Christians participate in the paschal mystery of Christ, and the degree of participation of each individual Christian is determined by specific sacramental signs particularly the Holy Eucharist are powerful signs by which we encounter God through Christ in the church. The progressive sacramental incorporation into Christ's paschal mystery and into the ecclesial community brings about a dynamic and gradual transformation into Christ.
f. Contemporary Moral Theology should be Personalistic.
The second Vatican Council exalts the dignity of the human person. The existential and personalistic currents of thoughts are helped in presenting the basic Christian moral message, provided its excesses do not mislead one. There is the need for understanding the human person as a whole. It remains each man's duty to preserve a view of the whole person, a view in which the value of the intellect, will, conscience and fraternity are pre-eminent.
g. Contemporary Moral Theology should be Ecumenical.
Catholic and Protestant moral thought had gone along separate ways for almost four centuries. Now there is a move towards rapprochement. The more scriptural and theo-centric presentation of a reformed moral thought has already made its useful impact on catholic reformed moral thought has already made its useful impact on catholic moral theology. There is also a need for trying to achieve a wider understanding between the ethical systems of different religions, particularly the world's famous religions. For a Christian who realizes the universality of the gospel message, there should be no question of opposing Christian Ethics. Say to Hindu or Buddhist Ethics. Just as St. Thomas Aquinas expressed the gospel message in Aristotelian terms, there should be also a similar possibility of expressing Hindu or Buddhist terms. Hindu Christians would need to be much more familiar with the gospel message and Hindu thought, and at the same time be liberated from a western problem which is also becoming increasingly difficult.
- Emphasize actions rather than behaviors of human person.
- How to do it manuals.
- Individualistic
- "Outside of the Church there is no salvation" concept prevails.
- Church's social obligation was neglected.
- Communal aspect was disregarded.
Are there Objective Moral Truths?
It is an old religious practice in one place in Pampanga during Good Friday where some or even women are nailed on the cross as "panata" or " an act of sacrifice" emulating what Jesus did 2000 years ago. The Catholic Church discourages this old practice as well as flagellation, and condemns these practices as unchristian. It is not moral because the participants inflict pains on their bodies but the practice is more of a show than a real sacrifice for the remissions of their sins. On the other hand, some Christians will say "while the practice is antagonistic to the doctrines of the Catholic Church, who are we to judge? How can you say that what they do is proper or improper? For them the act itself makes them feel that they are united with the Lord in his suffering. And that they feel God forgives their sins. These two perspectives reflect different understanding of morality. The first one considers morality as physical science where laws are unchanging. Like the law of gravity, whether one accepts it or not still gravity exists. In other words, even if we deny the existence of moral truth does not mean such truth do not exist. For the, there are certain moral laws, which is unalterable. The second perspective considers morality as cultural anthropology. They think that the rightness or wrongness of an action or behavior is influenced by one's upbringing, culture and religion. There are actions that all rational persons know are immoral but others disagree.
The usual dress for a young man of the 70's was a T-shirt with three inches collar and a green bell-bottom double knit pants. Today, it is an oversized pastel T-shirt with 1 and ½ inches collar and below the waist "maong" pants. Just as attitudes about clothing change with the times, so do attitudes about morality. Just as there is no one definitive account of moral right and wrong.
The situation presented asks us to decide if we are "objectivist" or "relativist". The objectivist position is that moral truths are "objective" in that they exist apart from whether or not we acknowledge them. The refusal to believe in physical laws does not change the fact that the water boils at 100 degrees centigrade. In the same way, persons may say certain actions are morally acceptable, but that does not make them right in the eyes of the objectivist. These people are simply in error, as was the person who doubted the existence of a boiling point. The relativist by contrast, believes that an analogy from the physical sciences does not accurately reflect the situation in ethics. The wide diversity of moral codes as well as the rapid changes in our own cultural mores leads them to conclude that there is no one definitely correct moral code. Ethical judgments are always judgment from a certain perspective, with no one perspective necessarily any better than another.
Both approaches have their dangers. Objectivists must guard against intolerance. By seeing one and only one morally correct answer, they run the risk of failing to appreciate cultural diversity. The relativists, by contrast, run the risk of reducing all moral decisions to statements of choice rather than truth. Our moral protests and vehement debates are reduced to being the equivalent of arguing whether chocolate ice cream is better than vanilla ice cream.
Definition of Terms:
Moral: means what is good or right.
Immoral: means what is bad or wrong.
Amoral: means having no moral sense or being indifference to right and wrong.
Nonmoral: means out of the realm of morality altogether.
Moral permissiveness: allows anything and does not even care of the results of one' actions.
Relativism: does not consider the objective values, in themselves, but utilizes them simply for one's convenience according to situations.
Loss of Morals: excludes moral values in their judgment of human behavior.
Good or Right: that which involves pleasure, happiness and excellence and also leads to harmony and creativity.
Bad or Wrong: that which will involve pain, unhappiness, and lack of excellence, and will lead to disharmony and lack of creativity.
Ethics: is the study of morality, or of what is good, bad, right or wrong in a moral sense.
Aesthetics: is the study of art and the artistic, or of what is good, bad, right, or wrong in art and what constitute what is beautiful in our lives.
Psychology: discusses man's intellect and free will. It is not interested in the morality of human behavior. It is not concerned with moral obligations but studies how man behaves.
Sociology: describes the general structure and attitudes of social groups, the family government, and the working class.
Anthropology: investigates the origin of the human body and behavior of the primitive man
Man, with his free will and intellect, leads a dynamic life. He has grown and developed from the primitive ways of life into a more sophisticated one, brought about by the development in science and technology. His moral life is affected by growth in knowledge and technology and the changes brought about by them.
The Bible is one of the living testimonies affirming man's development in morality. The following is a brief description of the different stages of development of moral theology as it progresses in time:
1. The law of the Jungle.
The book of Genesis gives us a very symbolic presentation of man's primal stages of development. Adam and Eve representing the first men had lived a primitive life, like at first, not wearing anything and then later on realized the use of what is available in the environment.
The story of Cain and Abel also tells us the supremacy of physical and brutal force, which is the law of the jungle. In Tagalog, we call this kind of morality as "matira ang matibay" – survival of the fittest which is true among our Filipino tribal groups and barangays, even before the coming of the Spaniards who introduced Christianity as a religion, and up to the present time. Although there were already sets of codes followed by our ancestors like the Code of Kalantiao, the law known as "an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth" still pervades. Hence, the physically strong member of the community lives and survives.
The use of force and violence in man's dealing with others is the striking feature of this law.
2. The Moral Law of the Old Testament.
The Old Testament part of the Bible, gives us accounts on the beginning of what is called the "covenant morality", based on the covenant relationship between God and His chosen people. The covenant relationship was further deepened and strengthened by the giving of the Decalogue, popularly known to us Christians as the Ten Commandments.
Today, our understanding of the history and our relationship with God helps us to understand the idea of this law, which is associated with our duty to God and to our fellowmen, and in the light of relationship – our covenant with God. This is the e covenant where God unites himself in love to his people.
The main idea and value of this covenant is in its stability and its steadfastness. Moses saw this himself, and preserved this covenant. He gave the chosen people the Ten Commandments, which have been valued greatly by his people.
There are two dimensions of attachments, namely: between the
3. The Moral Law of the New Testament.
The two tablets of the Ten Commandments are taken up in the New Testament by Jesus' twofold law of love, i.e., to love God and to love one's neighbor as oneself. This is presented in the different gospels as a summation of the law; however, it seems to give more emphasis on the love of neighbor. Although in the epistle of John, the love of God cannot be separated from the love of man.
"If you say, "I love God," while you hate your brother or sister, you are a liar. How can you love God whom you do not see, if you do not love your brother whom you see? We received from him this commandment: let those who love God also love their brothers." (1Jn. 4: 20)
Those people who do all or participate in all our religious practices and who say they love God, but cheat, abuse others, hate their neighbors, unforgiving to others, etc. are liars.
This moral teaching of Jesus has reference in the different gospels in different situations. This is represented in Matthew (5: 1-7: 12 – Sermon on the Mount or Beatitudes) and in the gospel according to Luke (6:20-24 – On Treasures).
The moral message of Jesus is centered on the proclamation of God's kingdom, which requires man to repent. He was not making specific moral demands but gave importance on calling everyone to have faith in God, observe the Law but not equate it with moral probity, to love one another.
Jesus was concerned with the world but rejected to be a political figure. His concern was to affect the consciousness and behavior of the leaders.
He also had a special regard for the poor. That poverty is not an obstacle for the attainment of the
One striking topic in the Gospel according to Luke is Jesus' concern for the dignity of women, which is in contrast with the Jewish attitudes and customs. Jesus' teachings on marriage and the family suggest a strong insistence on permanence.
Jesus also criticized those who acted only for the sake of rewards.
4. The Moral Teachings of the
Christian existence is an existence in a community. The law is summed up in the call to love one another.
Many of the Fathers of the Church contributed something in the development of Christian morality.
Clement of
Origen (Clement's successor in ca. 254) focused on the imitation of God in a more contemplative as well as the active life and reflected on free will is in virtues and the restoration of all things in God.
Ambrose (ca 397) provided the first case-approach to moral theology and insisted on the superiority of the Christian moral ideal over pagan philosophies.
Cyril of Jerusalem believes that Christian existence in sacramental existence.
Augustine (Ambrose's disciple) one of the most significant figure in the development of Christian Moral Theology, attended and discuss the fundamental problems of Christian morality like the relationship of grace and freedom, faith and work, faith and love, original sin and restoration of grace, grace and the law, natural law and revealed law, and divine love and the natural appetites. He believes that Christian morality is the way and means to eternal union with God. Hence, morality requires obedience to the law of love.
5. Moral Theology from the 7th to 12th century.
From the emphasis that Christian existence is corporate existence, Christianity became more legalized.
A remarkable change in moral theology is the appearance of the penitential books (Libri Poenitentialies) used to assist the generally uneducated clergy to be able to determine appropriate penance for a broad variety of sins. Further, this is due to influences of the Celtic monks who made the sacrament of penance as an individual sacrament.
6. Moral Theology from the 13th to the mid 20th century.
In the 13th century, systematization was the rule rather than the exception. The two great figures are Bonaventure and Thomas Aquinas.
For Bonaventure, the intellect is just a tool of the will, which is the instrument in making decisions.
Thomas Aquinas emphasized the intellectual side of human existence. His moral teaching is framed on the doctrines of creation and redemption. That a Christian concerns is to act as God's own image and likeness and on the humility of Christ as our way to God.
In the 14th and 15th centuries, individualistic ethics and ethical legalism were introduced by the nominalists like William of Ockham. They emphasized good individual acts is that which conforms to the will of the individual.
Feudalism was practiced during these centuries. Thus, there was a need to emphasize justice. Martin Luther, a prominent figure during this time, was convinced that no one is just and that the situation is focused on minimum. But Luther felt driven to perfection and that the situation cherishes good works. Luther placed his trust in faith alone.
The moral theology books were born in the 16th century to aid in the solution to moral problems and also to prepare priests for the sacramental ministry, especially the ministry of penance.
The Jansenists in the 17th century insisted that the strictest standards should be followed (a rigorist path). At the far left, the laxists favored deciding morality on a case-to-case basis that is favoring the easier course.
In the 19th to 20th centuries, Moral Theology was reconnected with the Bible giving emphasis on the themes of conversion, discipleship and the commandment of love. Noted theologians like Joseph Mausback, Otto Schilling, Frits Tulman and Theodore Steinbuechel presented a more integrated one – that the law of love, the ethics of the sermon is the heart and soul of moral theology. This theology was further disseminated by Joseph Fuchs, Bernard Haring and later by Charles Cunnan (Haring's American student).
7. Characteristics of Moral Theology before
a. Tendency to be monolistic or unilateral or one-track minded, more concern on the do's and don'ts.
b. Primary concern: Natural Law.
To be moral one should follow the natural law or law of nature.
c. Method: based on Natural Law.
Content: reason is the sole judge of human actions.
d. 1st law: to reason or be reasonable.
2nd law: man's primary concern is to build a community - to procreate and thus sexual faculties are ordained to procreate.
e. Characteristics: excessive emphasis on the manuals, textbooks that explains moral teachings primarily with a view on the sacrament of penance.
f. Deficiency: too legalistic – everything should be based on what the law says, and lacks spirituality.
g. Influenced greatly by a Church, which is highly institutionalized, and was strongly reacting to Reformation.
8. Moral Theology according to the spirit of Vatican II.
The Second Vatican Council in 1961-65 called for a renewal of moral theology stressing the need to go back into the teachings of the scriptures; the nobility of the Christian vocation of the faithful; the need to emphasize with the mystery of Christ and the history of salvation (a Christo-centric moral theology). It clearly states that "other theological disciples should also be renewed by livelier contact with the mystery of Christ and the morality of salvation". Special attention should be given to the development of moral theology. Its scientific exposition should be more thoroughly nourished by spiritual teaching. It should show the nobility of the Christian vocation of the faithful and their obligation to bear fruit in charity for the life of the world. Moral theology according to Vatican II should have the following characteristics:
a. The relational context between God and Man should be emphasized.
Contemporary Moral Theology should be both man and God centered. It is both theo-centric as well as anthropocentric, in the sense that God's call for man to love is inseparably relative to man's response to such call. The dialogical pattern to God's free invitation in character (on the part of God), and in Christ that God invites the sinful man to turn away from sin, and go back to God.
b. Contemporary Moral Theology should be Christo-centric.
A Christo-centric Moral Theology should primarily be concern with the person of Jesus and secondarily on the earthly and sinful man. The two emphases should be together, since they are related to one another. It is necessary to emphasize the sinful down-to-earth man. A humanity which does not belong to our sinful lot would not need a savior, would not need the person of Jesus. And any theology, which would fail to give importance to the saving mission of Christ, would not be genuinely, Christo-centric. It is only through Christ, that humanity continues to be fascinated by Jesus and has something to learn from Him. But now, He is at least, on the human level, He is flesh of our flesh. With the incarnation, the problem of inequality between God and man has been resolved. We have a bridge: a loving relationship or a dialogue of love between God and man, which becomes possible in Christ Jesus.
c. Contemporary Moral Theology must be Ecclesial and Communitarian.
The Holy Spirit who proceeds from the Father and the Son dwells within the church as his temple. The Contemporary Moral Theology's emphasis on the ecclesial aspect is the sequel of the Christo-centric emphases. The focus on the ecclesial aspect makes all the more necessary to take into consideration the Communitarian dimension of Christian life and morality. It should go beyond the individualistic morality of isolated acts and concern for individual perfection to a vision of building up the human community to which the church is called to be the leaven. The place of the Church's magisterium in guiding moral reflection must be understood in this context.
d. Contemporary Moral Theology must be Scriptural.
Man gains insight into God's plan for him through his human reason, which discovers certain laws in nature. Man can perceive them in the things God has made. God's revelation is more definite in the sacred Scripture or in the Bible. Human reason aided by faith in divine revelation enables man to understand better what God has called him to do in his life. The scripture is the primary source of divine revelation. The word of God in the bible is authoritative in matters of faith and morals. However we must be always be careful to discern whether a particular spiritual situation is an essential moral teaching, normative for all times, or relevant only to the particular situation or to a certain stage of salvation history. When the Vatican II speaks that Moral Theology should be "more thoroughly nourished by scriptural teachings" it meant that fundamental orientation and conception of morality should be derived from scripture.
e. Contemporary Moral Theology is Sacramental and Liturgical.
It should also be liturgical since all Christians participate in the paschal mystery of Christ, and the degree of participation of each individual Christian is determined by specific sacramental signs particularly the Holy Eucharist are powerful signs by which we encounter God through Christ in the church. The progressive sacramental incorporation into Christ's paschal mystery and into the ecclesial community brings about a dynamic and gradual transformation into Christ.
f. Contemporary Moral Theology should be Personalistic.
The second Vatican Council exalts the dignity of the human person. The existential and personalistic currents of thoughts are helped in presenting the basic Christian moral message, provided its excesses do not mislead one. There is the need for understanding the human person as a whole. It remains each man's duty to preserve a view of the whole person, a view in which the value of the intellect, will, conscience and fraternity are pre-eminent.
g. Contemporary Moral Theology should be Ecumenical.
Catholic and Protestant moral thought had gone along separate ways for almost four centuries. Now there is a move towards rapprochement. The more scriptural and theo-centric presentation of a reformed moral thought has already made its useful impact on catholic reformed moral thought has already made its useful impact on catholic moral theology. There is also a need for trying to achieve a wider understanding between the ethical systems of different religions, particularly the world's famous religions. For a Christian who realizes the universality of the gospel message, there should be no question of opposing Christian Ethics. Say to Hindu or Buddhist Ethics. Just as St. Thomas Aquinas expressed the gospel message in Aristotelian terms, there should be also a similar possibility of expressing Hindu or Buddhist terms. Hindu Christians would need to be much more familiar with the gospel message and Hindu thought, and at the same time be liberated from a western problem which is also becoming increasingly difficult.
- Emphasize actions rather than behaviors of human person.
- How to do it manuals.
- Individualistic
- "Outside of the Church there is no salvation" concept prevails.
- Church's social obligation was neglected.
- Communal aspect was disregarded.
Are there Objective Moral Truths?
It is an old religious practice in one place in Pampanga during Good Friday where some or even women are nailed on the cross as "panata" or " an act of sacrifice" emulating what Jesus did 2000 years ago. The Catholic Church discourages this old practice as well as flagellation, and condemns these practices as unchristian. It is not moral because the participants inflict pains on their bodies but the practice is more of a show than a real sacrifice for the remissions of their sins. On the other hand, some Christians will say "while the practice is antagonistic to the doctrines of the Catholic Church, who are we to judge? How can you say that what they do is proper or improper? For them the act itself makes them feel that they are united with the Lord in his suffering. And that they feel God forgives their sins. These two perspectives reflect different understanding of morality. The first one considers morality as physical science where laws are unchanging. Like the law of gravity, whether one accepts it or not still gravity exists. In other words, even if we deny the existence of moral truth does not mean such truth do not exist. For the, there are certain moral laws, which is unalterable. The second perspective considers morality as cultural anthropology. They think that the rightness or wrongness of an action or behavior is influenced by one's upbringing, culture and religion. There are actions that all rational persons know are immoral but others disagree.
The usual dress for a young man of the 70's was a T-shirt with three inches collar and a green bell-bottom double knit pants. Today, it is an oversized pastel T-shirt with 1 and ½ inches collar and below the waist "maong" pants. Just as attitudes about clothing change with the times, so do attitudes about morality. Just as there is no one definitive account of moral right and wrong.
The situation presented asks us to decide if we are "objectivist" or "relativist". The objectivist position is that moral truths are "objective" in that they exist apart from whether or not we acknowledge them. The refusal to believe in physical laws does not change the fact that the water boils at 100 degrees centigrade. In the same way, persons may say certain actions are morally acceptable, but that does not make them right in the eyes of the objectivist. These people are simply in error, as was the person who doubted the existence of a boiling point. The relativist by contrast, believes that an analogy from the physical sciences does not accurately reflect the situation in ethics. The wide diversity of moral codes as well as the rapid changes in our own cultural mores leads them to conclude that there is no one definitely correct moral code. Ethical judgments are always judgment from a certain perspective, with no one perspective necessarily any better than another.
Both approaches have their dangers. Objectivists must guard against intolerance. By seeing one and only one morally correct answer, they run the risk of failing to appreciate cultural diversity. The relativists, by contrast, run the risk of reducing all moral decisions to statements of choice rather than truth. Our moral protests and vehement debates are reduced to being the equivalent of arguing whether chocolate ice cream is better than vanilla ice cream.
Definition of Terms:
Moral: means what is good or right.
Immoral: means what is bad or wrong.
Amoral: means having no moral sense or being indifference to right and wrong.
Nonmoral: means out of the realm of morality altogether.
Moral permissiveness: allows anything and does not even care of the results of one' actions.
Relativism: does not consider the objective values, in themselves, but utilizes them simply for one's convenience according to situations.
Loss of Morals: excludes moral values in their judgment of human behavior.
Good or Right: that which involves pleasure, happiness and excellence and also leads to harmony and creativity.
Bad or Wrong: that which will involve pain, unhappiness, and lack of excellence, and will lead to disharmony and lack of creativity.
Ethics: is the study of morality, or of what is good, bad, right or wrong in a moral sense.
Aesthetics: is the study of art and the artistic, or of what is good, bad, right, or wrong in art and what constitute what is beautiful in our lives.
Psychology: discusses man's intellect and free will. It is not interested in the morality of human behavior. It is not concerned with moral obligations but studies how man behaves.
Sociology: describes the general structure and attitudes of social groups, the family government, and the working class.
Anthropology: investigates the origin of the human body and behavior of the primitive man
INTRO TO MORAL THEOLOGY
Introduction to Moral Theology.
A. General Exposition:
Human life is the most precious and most wonderful gift of God to a human person. Human life is designed for co-existence since a human person is essentially co-existing and open to others, to the community, and to the world around him. This openness makes him capable of influencing others, and also being influenced by others. For this reason, a human person cannot help but manifest his inner experiences externally to the people around him and to the community to which he or she belongs. There are two closely related ways of expressing the inner experiences inside him or her; first, through the use of language or by expressing it out through human acts.
Moral theology is a course dealing with human acts leading a human person progressively towards the goal determined by reason enlightened by faith. It is the study of a human person’s lifetime journey back to God. Moral theology is inseparably linked to divine revelation since the path or the way of the journey, as well as, every human person’s ultimate destiny is known by God Who in turn reveals it to every human person. Since Christ is the fullness of God’s revelation then His person is the model and guide of all moral actions. “I am the Way, the Truth and the Life (Jn. 14: 6).” It is in this sense that moral theology could also be considered in its fullness as Christian Morality. It would deal on human conduct based on the person of Christ and his great commandment of Love of God and love of neighbor.
Human reason alone unaided by faith in divine revelation is not sufficient in itself as guide for human conduct. It needs the aid of divine revelation, since reason and faith compliment each other. Genuine morality is designed to be linked with our basic understanding of God as the ground of reasonableness and as the ultimate source of human existence. Such basic understanding of God Who is the Supreme Lawgiver, could only be possible through faith, hence we have come up with a study of Moral theology, and integral part of the entries theological course.
B. General Definition of Moral Theology:
Moral theology or otherwise known as Christian Ethics is that part of theology which studies the guidelines a human person ought to follow in order to attain his or her final goal (Perfection, Happiness, Nirvana, Brahman, Redemption, Liberation, Enlightenment, Heaven, Communism, or Salvation) in the light of Christian faith and of reason.
Moral Theology, in other words, is part of Theology which deals more in making clear how faith should shape and guide Christian life, both the lives of individual Christians and the life of the community of believers which is the Church. We study revelation in moral theology to find its practical meaning for our lives; from faith we seek guidance for practical thinking, choices, and commitments.
The most basic part of moral theology is the study of Christian moral principles. However, they are not only the standards by which we distinguish right from wrong. The central mysteries of faith - The Trinity, Incarnation, and our adoption as children of God - are also normative, as indeed the whole of revealed truth is. To say revelation is “normative” means that it has practical implications. Invited by the Father, Son and Holy Spirit to intimate communion, we are to live our lives worthy of his calling, and the only style of life worthy of God is that which is exemplified and taught by Jesus. In clarifying this way of life , the study of Christian moral principles makes clear the practical relevance of the whole Christian faith.
In other words, Moral theology for Christians is likewise defined as the response of every human person, which is faith to God’s call, which is revelation. This divine revelation reaches its fullness through Jesus the Christ, the Son of God who became one like us except sins. By following Jesus’ deeds and words, thus, each human person becomes like him. As Jesus invites each one to be perfect as his heavenly Father is perfect. For, whoever sees him has seen the Father in heaven. So, he says, come follow me and there is no turning back.
C. Moral Theology as Christian Morality:
Moral Theology has its basis on the encounter between God and The human beings. God reveals himself to the human beings, and the human beings respond freely to his revelation. This event can be distinguished into two different levels, the natural and supernatural.
1. In the natural level, God reveals himself to human beings through his creation.
The human person is related to God his or her creator. But the relationship between the two is not a relationship between equal partners. God is greater than the transient human person.
Because of this inequality, the human person is unable to reach directly God. The human mind cannot grasp fully the immensity of God’s intellectual power. Thus, God is always an absolute mystery to human mind in the natural level.
Humans, however, could perceive God as the Creator of all that are tangibles to the naked eyes, his wonderful creation. “Ever since God created the universe, His invisible qualities, both his eternal power and his divine nature, have been clearly seen. Man can perceive them in the things that God has made (Romans 1: 19 - 20).” In other words, all human beings are able to perceive God through his creation.
On the other hand, a human person’s response to God’s call in the natural level is his or her recognition and promotion of the created value, in the faithful fulfillment of the task assigned to him in this world, and in obedience to the moral command. In short, to answer his call in willing obedience and responsibility.
On the contrary, human beings take things for granted. They continue to live their life in this world as if everything they see around them exists because they deserve them. They use and sometimes abuse nature and other created things as if they were the owners. They do not realize or ask themselves about God who is the giver and the Creator of everything on earth. But if something unpleasant happens to them, that’s the time they remember God. What worse is, they will turn to him and even blame him unfairly. God is often, if not always, forgotten.
2. God’s revelation to all human beings in the supernatural or religious level.
God is free Spirit who freely initiates an invitation to all human beings to participate in his being in a very special manner based on love-relationship. This relationship is infinitely higher and more intimate than the Creator-creature relationship. In this new level of dialogue based on intimacy of friendship, a deeper relationship is established whereby God touches the inner consciousness including man’s inner faculties resulting in the creative transformation of the whole man. In such transformation, the whole man is raised up to a new level of consciousness, which surpasses his natural capabilities. Man is supernaturalized or divinized through God’s grace.
God on the other hand, if he desires to love us and to be loved in return, has to love us in our terms otherwise we would not be able to recognize it as love. When man is ready God became man in the Person of Jesus Christ in order to make possible the establishment of love-relationship. This kind of relationship must have these two following characteristics: (1) it must be free, and (2) it must be a relationship between two partners who are in some way equal. This is because freedom and equality are essential characteristics of love as we know it.
In the person of Jesus Christ man could freely accept him or reject him with the corresponding responsibility of losing the true meaning of life. It is only through Christ, in Christ, and with Christ that the most intimate love-relationship with God becomes possible. “I am the way, and the truth, and the life, no one comes to the Father except through me (John 14: 6).”
Through God’s grace man is transformed and raised up into the supernatural or religious level, and God on the other hand became man in the person of Jesus Christ, where God and man should meet. The person of Jesus Christ is the fullness of God’s revelation, and it is through our faith in him that man’s true identity and dignity are known.
3. The mutual relationship between the natural and supernatural level of revelation.
Natural and supernatural revelations are not exclusively sealed from one another. They compliment each other since God is the author of both nature and supernature, and He could not contradict Himself. The natural is ordained for the supernatural, and the supernatural has its basis in the natural.
4. Christian Morality as the focal point of Moral Theology.
Morality is the quality of character, the rightness or wrongness of human activity and conduct. The norm of Christian morality is the relation of man’s actions to God’s will. Morally good are those actions that are in conformity with God’s will. Only man among all other creatures is given the ability to distinguish between good and evil and to choose freely whatever side he wishes to take.
Man is gifted with the power of intelligence and capacity to love. Man has power over the material universe because he is given the power to know and understand things. He shares in the light of the divine. The rational nature of the human person is perfected by wisdom and knowledge. For wisdom gently attracts man’s mind to desire and love, that which is understood as true and good.
Man has a sense of what is right and wrong in his innermost self. It moves him to do what is right and warns him to avoid what is wrong. This inner knowledge is God’s voice speaking through man’s conscience. Man’s conscience is a gift from God, it is the duty of every human being to develop and properly inform such gift in order to remain fully attuned to god’s will.
A true human act always involves knowledge and free will. True human acts do not happen be mere chance. They are the result of a deliberate decision of man himself. Morality is concerned exactly with these acts of man. It tells us how they ought to be and then judges them as right or wrong.
Christian morality is guided by Christ’s great commandment of love, and the person of Christ is the model of all-moral decision and actions. It helps man develop his ability to respond to god in love and to express such love in service to one’s fellowmen.
The general principles of Christian morality is very simple; namely, do good and avoid evil. However, the practical application of this principle in the different situations in life is not always that simple.
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